1;Preface;5 2;Contents;6 3;Abbreviations and technical remarks;9 4;Introduction;10 5;Chapter 1 The Evolution of Plant stems in the Earth's History;12 5.1;THE LANDSCAPE IN THE PALEOZOIC;13 5.2;PLANT BODY OF VASCULAR PLANTS (CORMUS);15 5.3;THE EVOLUTION OF A STABILIZATON SYSTEM;17 5.4;THE CONTEMPORARY FOSSIL PSILOTUM NUDUM?;18 5.5;DIVERSIFICATION OF PLANTS CONTAINING TRACHEIDS;19 5.5.1;LYCOPODS;19 5.5.2;HORSETAILS;20 5.5.3;FOSSIL AND CONTEMPORARY FERNS;21 5.5.4;CONTEMPORARY FERNS;23 5.6;TREES GROW TALLER AND BIGGER;25 5.7;SUCCESSFUL SEED PLANTS WITH NAKED SEEDS;27 5.7.1;GINKGOS AND CYCADS;27 5.7.2;GNETOPHYTES (EPHEDRA, GNETUM AND WELWITSCHIA);29 5.8;THE MOST SUCCESSFUL SEED PLANTS WITH NAKED SEEDS: CONIFERS;31 5.9;SUCCESSFUL PLANTS WITH SEEDS ENCLOSED IN A CARPEL: ANGIOSPERMAE;33 5.10;SYSTEMATIC OF PLANT LIFE;35 6;Chapter 2 The Structure of the Plant body;36 6.1;LIFE FORMS IN DIFFERENT VEGETATION ZONES;37 6.2;PRINCIPAL GROWTH FORMS OF STEMS;39 6.3;PRINCIPAL CONSTRUCTION OF ROOTS AND SHOOTS;41 6.4;PRINCIPAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE XYLEM AND PHLOEM CELL TYPES, CELL WALLS AND CELL CONTENTS;43 7;Chapter 3 SecondAry growth: Advantages and Risks;47 7.1;PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROWTH;48 7.2;PRINCIPLE STRUCTURE OF PLANTS WITH SECONDARY GROWTH;50 7.3;PHYSIOLOGICAL AGEING IN PLANTS WITH SECONDARY GROWTH;51 7.4;THE RISKS OF WATER TRANSPORT: STABILIZED AND PERMEABLE CELL WALLS;52 7.5;THE RISKS OF STEM THICKENING: DILATATION AND PHELLEM FORMATION;54 7.6;THE RISKS OF OVER-PRODUCTION: PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH;58 7.7;THE RISKS OF INSTABILITY: ECCENTRICITY;60 7.8;THE RISKS OF INSTABILITY: REACTION WOOD;62 7.9;THE RISKS OF INSTABILITY: FORMATION OF LIGNIN AND THICK CELL WALLS;64 7.10;THE RISK OF INSTABILITY: INTERNAL OPTIMIZATION;66 7.11;THE RISK OF DECOMPOSITION: NATURAL BOUNDARIES AND PROTECTION SYSTEMS;68 7.12;THE RISK OF DECOMPOSITION: DEFENCE BARRIERS AROUND WOUNDS;70 7.13;THE RISK OF SHEDDING PLANT PARTS: ABSCISSION;72 7.14;THE RISK OF SHEDDING PLANT PARTS: ABSCISSION OF LEAFS AND TWIGS;74 8;Chapter 4 Modification of the Stem Structure;76 8.1;THE PRIMARY STAGE OF GROWTH: THE CONSTRUCTION OF VASCULAR BUNDLES;77 8.2;THE PRIMARY STAGE OF GROWTH: THE ARRANGEMENT OF VASCULAR BUNDLES IN MOSSES, LYCOPODS AND FERNS;79 8.3;THE PRIMARY STAGE OF GROWTH: THE ARRANGEMENT OF VASCULAR BUNDLES IN CONIFER AND DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANT SHOOTS;81 8.4;THE SECONDARY STAGE OF GROWTH: CONIFER XYLEM;83 8.5;THE SECONDARY STAGE OF GROWTH: THE XYLEM OF DICOTYLEDONOUS ANGIOSPERMS;85 8.6;THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY STAGES OF GROWTH OF MONOCOTYLEDONS, MACROSCOPIC VIEW;89 8.7;THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY STAGES OF GROWTH OF MONOCOTYLEDONS, MICROSCOPIC VIEW 200 µm;91 8.8;THE SECONDARY STAGE OF GROWTH: CONIFER PHLOEM;93 8.9;THE SECONDARY STAGE OF GROWTH: THE PHLOEM OF DICOTYLEDONOUS ANGIOSPERMS;95 8.10;THE SECONDARY STAGE OF GROWTH: CAMBIAL GROWTH VARIANTS AND SUCCESSIVE CAMBIA;97 8.11;THE THIRD STAGE OF GROWTH: THE PERIDERM;99 9;Chapter 5 Modification of the Xylem Within a Plant;102 9.1;MODIFICATION OF THE XYLEM WITHIN A PLANT ;103 9.1.1;CONIFER: ROOT, TWIG AND STEM;103 9.1.2;DECIDUOUS TREE: ROOT, TWIG AND STEM;104 9.1.3;FROM ROOT TO STEM STRUCTURE;106 9.2;MODIFICATION BY AGING:;107 9.2.1;CHANGING GROWTH FORMS;107 9.2.2;CHANGING GROWTH AND LEAF FORMS;108 9.2.3;CHANGING WOOD ANATOMICAL STRUCTURES;109 9.2.4;CHANGE OF PHLOEM AND PERIDERM STRUCTURES;111 10;Chapter 6 Modificotion oh the Xylem and Phloem by Ecological Factors;113 10.1;INTRA-ANNUAL DENSITY FLUCTUATIONS, PHENOLIC AND CRYSTAL DEPOSITS;114 10.2;INTRA-ANNUAL CELL COLLAPSE, CALLOUS TISSUE AND DUCTS;116 10.3;INTERANNUAL VARIATION OF LATEWOOD ZONES;118 10.4;LONG TERM VARIATIONS: SUDDEN GROWTH CHANGES;119 10.5;INTER- AND INTRA-ANNUAL VARIATIONS OF THE PHLOEM;120 10.6;INTERCELLULAR SPACES IN THE CORTEX;122 11;Chapter 7 Modification of Organs;123 11.1;MODIFICATION OF SHOOTS: ;124 11.1.1;LONG AND SHORT SHOOTS;124 11.1.2;SHEDDING NEEDLES, MALE AND FEMALE FLOWERS;127 11.1.3;THORNS AND SPINES;128 11.1.4;VERTICAL, HORIZONTAL AND DROOPING TWIGS;1