1;Author Index;15<br />2;1.1 The Solar Refinery;21<br />2.1;1.1.1 Introduction;21<br />2.2;1.1.2 The Role of Chemistry in the Energy Challenge;25<br />2.3;1.1.3 Chemical Reactions and Catalysis;27<br />2.4;1.1.4 The Design of Catalysts and Processes;36<br />2.5;1.1.5 The Biological Origin of Our Present Energy System;37<br />2.6;1.1.6 Chemical Energy Storage: One Long-Term Solution;40<br />2.7;1.1.7 References;50<br />3;1.2 Energy Storage Strategies;55<br />3.1;1.2.1 Introduction;55<br />3.2;1.2.2 General Considerations;55<br />3.3;1.2.3 Heat (Cold) Storage;57<br />3.4;1.2.4 Grid-Scale Storage of Electrical Energy;59<br />3.4.1;1.2.4.1 Storage on the Transmission Grid Scale;60<br />3.4.2;1.2.4.2 Storage on Distribution and Medium-Voltage Grid Scale;63<br />3.5;1.2.5 Energy Storage for Mobile Applications;64<br />3.5.1;1.2.5.1 Chemical Compounds;65<br />3.5.2;1.2.5.2 Traction Batteries;66<br />3.6;1.2.6 Systems Considerations;67<br />4;1.3 Energy and Society: A Practical Guide;69<br />4.1;1.3.1 Notes;77<br />4.2;1.3.2 References;77<br />5;2.1 Biofuels Derived from Renewable Feedstocks;79<br />5.1;2.1.1 Introduction;79<br />5.2;2.1.2 Sources of Biomass;79<br />5.3;2.1.3 Lignocellulose as Feedstock;82<br />5.4;2.1.4 Bioethanol as Sustainable Biofuel;83<br />5.5;2.1.5 Biodiesel as Potential Biofuel;86<br />5.6;2.1.6 Production of Biofuel via Chemical Transformations of Lignocellulose;88<br />5.7;2.1.7 Controlled Transformations of Carbohydrates into Hydrocarbon Fuels;92<br />5.8;2.1.8 Controlled Transformations of Carbohydrates into Novel Biofuels;96<br />5.8.1;2.1.8.1 Transformations Based on LA;97<br />5.8.2;2.1.8.2 Biofuel Compounds Based on 5-HMF;99<br />5.9;2.1.9 Controlled Transformations of Lignin into Potential Fuel Compounds;101<br />5.10;2.1.10 Summary;102<br />5.11;2.1.11 Acknowledgment;102<br />5.12;2.1.12 References;102<br />6;2.2 Biomass Conversion to Chemicals;107<br />6.1;2.2.1 Introduction;107<br />6.2;2.2.2 Classification of Biomass;108<br />6.2.1;2.2.2.1 Lignocellulose;109<br />6.2.2;2.2.2.2 Lipids;114<br />6.2.3;2.2.2.3 Proteins;118<br />6.3;2.2.3 Selected Key Chemicals;118<br />6.3.1;2.2.3.1 Cellulose;118<br />6.3.2;2.2.3.2 Glycerol;119<br />6.4;2.2.4 Technologies and Requirements for Chemical Production from Biomass;123<br />6.5;2.2.5 Economic Considerations;124<br />6.6;2.2.6 Outlook;125<br />6.7;2.2.7 References;125<br />7;2.3 Thermal Conversion of Biomass;129<br />7.1;2.3.1 Torrefaction;132<br />7.2;2.3.2 Pyrolysis;132<br />7.2.1;2.3.2.1 Introduction;132<br />7.2.2;2.3.2.2 Pyrolysis Reactors;133<br />7.2.3;2.3.2.3 Biomass;134<br />7.2.4;2.3.2.4 Composition of Bio-Oil;134<br />7.2.5;2.3.2.5 Utilization of Bio-Oil;135<br />7.2.6;2.3.2.6 Upgrading of Bio-Oil;135<br />7.3;2.3.3 Gasification;136<br />7.3.1;2.3.3.1 Introduction;136<br />7.3.2;2.3.3.2 Gasification Reactors;137<br />7.3.3;2.3.3.3 Energy in Gasification;138<br />7.4;2.3.4 Combustion;138<br />7.4.1;2.3.4.1 Introduction;138<br />7.4.2;2.3.4.2 Energy in Combustion;139<br />7.4.3;2.3.4.3 Co-combustion;139<br />7.5;2.3.5 Summary;140<br />7.6;2.3.6 References;141<br />8;2.4 Biomass to Mineralized Carbon: Energy Generation and/or Carbon Sequestration;145<br />8.1;2.4.1 Introduction;145<br />8.2;2.4.2 HTC;146<br />8.2.1;2.4.2.1 HTC of Biomass Waste for Environmentally Friendly Carbon Sequestration;146<br />8.2.2;2.4.2.2 HTC for "Carbon-Negative Materials";147<br />8.3;2.4.3 Mineralized Biomass as Energy Carrier;149<br />8.3.1;2.4.3.1 "Biocoal" and Its Comparison to Other Biofuels, Biogas and Bioethanol;149<br />8.3.2;2.4.3.2 Carbon Fuel Cells;152<br />8.4;2.4.4 Discussion and Conclusion;153<br />8.5;2.4.5 References;153<br />9;3.1 Electrochemical Concepts: A Practical Guide;155<br />9.1;3.1.1 Introduction;155<br />9.2;3.1.2 Electrodes in Electrolytes;157<br />9.3;3.1.3 Energetics of Electrode Reactions;158<br />9.4;3.1.4 The Electrochemical Cell;160<br />9.4.1;3.1.4.1 The Concept;160<br />9.4.2;3.1.4.2 Chemical and Electric Energy;162<br />9.4.3;3.1.4.3 The Maximum Electric Energy Produced and the Equilibrium Cell Voltage;164<br />9.5;3.1.5 Concentration Dependence of E: The Nernst Equation;165<br />9.5.1;3.1.5.1 The Nernst Equation;165<br />9.5.2;3.1.5.2 Concentration Cells;167<br />9.6;3.1.6 The Temperature Dependence of the Equilibrium Cell Voltage, E;168<br />9.7;3.1.7 Conclusion;168<br />9.8;3.1.8 Acknowledgment;169