1;Author Index;15
2;1.1 The Solar Refinery;21
2.1;1.1.1 Introduction;21
2.2;1.1.2 The Role of Chemistry in the Energy Challenge;25
2.3;1.1.3 Chemical Reactions and Catalysis;27
2.4;1.1.4 The Design of Catalysts and Processes;36
2.5;1.1.5 The Biological Origin of Our Present Energy System;37
2.6;1.1.6 Chemical Energy Storage: One Long-Term Solution;40
2.7;1.1.7 References;50
3;1.2 Energy Storage Strategies;55
3.1;1.2.1 Introduction;55
3.2;1.2.2 General Considerations;55
3.3;1.2.3 Heat (Cold) Storage;57
3.4;1.2.4 Grid-Scale Storage of Electrical Energy;59
3.4.1;1.2.4.1 Storage on the Transmission Grid Scale;60
3.4.2;1.2.4.2 Storage on Distribution and Medium-Voltage Grid Scale;63
3.5;1.2.5 Energy Storage for Mobile Applications;64
3.5.1;1.2.5.1 Chemical Compounds;65
3.5.2;1.2.5.2 Traction Batteries;66
3.6;1.2.6 Systems Considerations;67
4;1.3 Energy and Society: A Practical Guide;69
4.1;1.3.1 Notes;77
4.2;1.3.2 References;77
5;2.1 Biofuels Derived from Renewable Feedstocks;79
5.1;2.1.1 Introduction;79
5.2;2.1.2 Sources of Biomass;79
5.3;2.1.3 Lignocellulose as Feedstock;82
5.4;2.1.4 Bioethanol as Sustainable Biofuel;83
5.5;2.1.5 Biodiesel as Potential Biofuel;86
5.6;2.1.6 Production of Biofuel via Chemical Transformations of Lignocellulose;88
5.7;2.1.7 Controlled Transformations of Carbohydrates into Hydrocarbon Fuels;92
5.8;2.1.8 Controlled Transformations of Carbohydrates into Novel Biofuels;96
5.8.1;2.1.8.1 Transformations Based on LA;97
5.8.2;2.1.8.2 Biofuel Compounds Based on 5-HMF;99
5.9;2.1.9 Controlled Transformations of Lignin into Potential Fuel Compounds;101
5.10;2.1.10 Summary;102
5.11;2.1.11 Acknowledgment;102
5.12;2.1.12 References;102
6;2.2 Biomass Conversion to Chemicals;107
6.1;2.2.1 Introduction;107
6.2;2.2.2 Classification of Biomass;108
6.2.1;2.2.2.1 Lignocellulose;109
6.2.2;2.2.2.2 Lipids;114
6.2.3;2.2.2.3 Proteins;118
6.3;2.2.3 Selected Key Chemicals;118
6.3.1;2.2.3.1 Cellulose;118
6.3.2;2.2.3.2 Glycerol;119
6.4;2.2.4 Technologies and Requirements for Chemical Production from Biomass;123
6.5;2.2.5 Economic Considerations;124
6.6;2.2.6 Outlook;125
6.7;2.2.7 References;125
7;2.3 Thermal Conversion of Biomass;129
7.1;2.3.1 Torrefaction;132
7.2;2.3.2 Pyrolysis;132
7.2.1;2.3.2.1 Introduction;132
7.2.2;2.3.2.2 Pyrolysis Reactors;133
7.2.3;2.3.2.3 Biomass;134
7.2.4;2.3.2.4 Composition of Bio-Oil;134
7.2.5;2.3.2.5 Utilization of Bio-Oil;135
7.2.6;2.3.2.6 Upgrading of Bio-Oil;135
7.3;2.3.3 Gasification;136
7.3.1;2.3.3.1 Introduction;136
7.3.2;2.3.3.2 Gasification Reactors;137
7.3.3;2.3.3.3 Energy in Gasification;138
7.4;2.3.4 Combustion;138
7.4.1;2.3.4.1 Introduction;138
7.4.2;2.3.4.2 Energy in Combustion;139
7.4.3;2.3.4.3 Co-combustion;139
7.5;2.3.5 Summary;140
7.6;2.3.6 References;141
8;2.4 Biomass to Mineralized Carbon: Energy Generation and/or Carbon Sequestration;145
8.1;2.4.1 Introduction;145
8.2;2.4.2 HTC;146
8.2.1;2.4.2.1 HTC of Biomass Waste for Environmentally Friendly Carbon Sequestration;146
8.2.2;2.4.2.2 HTC for "Carbon-Negative Materials";147
8.3;2.4.3 Mineralized Biomass as Energy Carrier;149
8.3.1;2.4.3.1 "Biocoal" and Its Comparison to Other Biofuels, Biogas and Bioethanol;149
8.3.2;2.4.3.2 Carbon Fuel Cells;152
8.4;2.4.4 Discussion and Conclusion;153
8.5;2.4.5 References;153
9;3.1 Electrochemical Concepts: A Practical Guide;155
9.1;3.1.1 Introduction;155
9.2;3.1.2 Electrodes in Electrolytes;157
9.3;3.1.3 Energetics of Electrode Reactions;158
9.4;3.1.4 The Electrochemical Cell;160
9.4.1;3.1.4.1 The Concept;160
9.4.2;3.1.4.2 Chemical and Electric Energy;162
9.4.3;3.1.4.3 The Maximum Electric Energy Produced and the Equilibrium Cell Voltage;164
9.5;3.1.5 Concentration Dependence of E: The Nernst Equation;165
9.5.1;3.1.5.1 The Nernst Equation;165
9.5.2;3.1.5.2 Concentration Cells;167
9.6;3.1.6 The Temperature Dependence of the Equilibrium Cell Voltage, E;168
9.7;3.1.7 Conclusion;168
9.8;3.1.8 Acknowledgment;169