1;Preface;7 2;Contents;8 3;Contributors;14 4;Part I Classification and Diagnosis;15 4.1;Anatomy of the Craniofacial Region;16 4.1.1;1.1 Anterior Skull Base;16 4.1.2;1.1.1 Cribriform Plate/Crista Galli;16 4.1.3;1.1.2 Fossa Olfactoria;17 4.1.4;1.1.3 Roof of the Orbit;20 4.1.5;1.1.4 Dura;20 4.1.6;1.1.5 Arterial Supply: Skull Base/Dura;20 4.1.7;1.2 Paranasal Sinuses;20 4.1.8;1.2.1 Frontal Sinus;20 4.1.9;1.2.2 Ethmoid;20 4.1.10;1.2.3 Sphenoid;22 4.1.11;1.3 Midface Skeleton;22 4.1.12;1.4 Subcranial and Midface Skeleton;24 4.1.13;References;24 4.2;Radiology of Craniofacial Fractures;27 4.2.1;2.1 Conventional X-Rays;27 4.2.2;2.2 Computed Tomography;27 4.2.3;2.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI);31 4.2.4;2.4 Ultrasonography;31 4.2.5;2.5 Diagnostic Algorithm 2.5.1 General Considerations;32 4.2.6;2.5.2 Craniocerebral Trauma;33 4.2.7;2.5.3 Skull Base Fractures;37 4.2.8;Increased intracranial pressure?;38 4.2.9;2.5.4 Midface Fractures;39 4.2.10;Skull base fractures;39 4.2.11;CT;39 4.2.12;CT;39 4.2.13;CT;39 4.2.14;References;40 4.3;Classification of Craniofacial Fractures;42 4.3.1;3.1 Frontobasal: Frontofacial Fractures;42 4.3.2;3.1.1 Anatomical Classification: Skull Base Fractures;43 4.3.3;3.1.2 Topographic Classification: Skull Base Fractures;43 4.3.4;3.2 Midface Fractures;44 4.3.5;3.2.1 Standard Classifications;44 4.3.6;3.2.2 Central Midface Fractures;45 4.3.7;3.2.3 Centrolateral Midface Fractures;46 4.3.8;3.2.4 Skull Base and Fracture Levels in the Region of the Septum;47 4.3.9;3.2.5 Lateral Midface Fractures;47 4.3.10;3.2.6 Midface: Combined Fractures;49 4.3.11;3.2.7 Naso-Orbito-Ethmoidal Fractures ( NOE Fractures);49 4.3.12;3.2.8 Cranio-Frontal Fractures;51 4.3.13;3.3. Craniofacial Fractures 3.3.1 Skull Base- Related Classification;51 4.3.14;3.3.2 Subcranial Facial Fractures;56 4.3.15;3.3.3 Craniofacial Fractures 3.3.4 Central Cranio-Frontal Fractures;58 4.3.16;3.3.5 Lateral Cranio-Orbital Fractures;58 4.3.17;References;63 4.4;Mechanisms of Craniofacial Fractures;66 4.4.1;4.1 Fractures of the Skull Base;66 4.4.2;4.1.1 Burst Fractures;66 4.4.3;4.1.2 Bending Fractures;66 4.4.4;4.2 Frontofacial: Frontobasal Fractures 4.2.1 Fracture Mechanism;67 4.4.5;4.3 Midfacial: Frontobasal Fractures;67 4.4.6;4.3.1 Trauma Factors;67 4.4.7;4.3.2 Impact Forces and Vectors;68 4.4.8;4.3.3 Structural Resistance and Energy Absorption;68 4.4.9;4.3.4 Impact Surface;70 4.4.10;4.3.5 Position of the Skull;71 4.4.11;References;71 4.5;Epidemiological Aspects of Craniofacial/ Skull Base Fractures;73 4.5.1;5.1 Epidemiology;73 4.5.2;5.2 Skull Base Fractures/Meningeal Injuries;74 4.5.3;5.2.1 Frequency;74 4.5.4;5.2.2 Localization;74 4.5.5;5.3 Midface: Skull Base Fractures;74 4.5.6;5.3.1 Involvement of the Skull Base in High Midface Fractures;75 4.5.7;5.3.2 Dural Injuries;75 4.5.8;5.4 Cranio-Fronto-Ethmoidal Fractures;76 4.5.9;5.4.1 Frontal Sinus: Midface Fractures;76 4.5.10;5.5 Distribution According to Age 5.6 Distribution According to Gender;77 4.5.11;5.7 Associated Injuries;78 4.5.12;5.7.1 Thoracic, Abdominal, and Cervical Spine Injuries;78 4.5.13;5.7.2 Eye Injuries;79 4.5.14;5.7.3 Facial Soft-Tissue Injuries;79 4.5.15;5.8 Special Fractures and Complications;79 4.5.16;5.8.2 Gunshot Wounds and Tissue Avulsion;79 4.5.17;5.8.3 Complicating Effects;83 4.5.18;References;84 4.6;Craniofacial Fracture Symptoms;87 4.6.1;6.1 Combined Skull Base and Midface Fractures;87 4.6.2;6.1.1 Certain Signs of Skull Base and Dural Injuries;87 4.6.3;6.1.2 Uncertain Signs of Skull Base and Dural Injuries;91 4.6.4;6.1.3 Questionable Signs of Skull Base Fractures;104 4.6.5;6.2 Midface Injuries (Clinical Signs);105 4.6.6;6.2.1 Central Midface Fractures without Abnormal Occlusion ( NOE Fractures);105 4.6.7;6.2.2 Central Midface Fractures with Abnormal Occlusion ( Le Fort I and II);105 4.6.8;6.2.3 Centrolateral Midface Fractures with Abnormal Occlusion ( Le Fort III);106 4.6.9;6.2.4 Lateral Midface Fractures;106 4.6.10;6.3 Orbital Injuries 6.3.1 Orbital Soft- Tissue Injuries;107 4.6.11;6.3.2 Orbi