1;Key Topics in Surgical Research and Methodology;1 1.1;Title Page;2 1.2;Copyright Page;3 1.3;Foreword;4 1.4;Preface;6 1.5;Acknowlesgements;8 1.6;About the Editors;9 1.7;Contents;13 1.8;Contributors;19 1.9;Chapter 1;30 1.9.1;The Role of Surgical Research;30 1.9.1.1;1.1 Introduction;30 1.9.1.2;1.2 The Aims of Surgical Research;31 1.9.1.3;1.3 Translating Surgical Research into Practice;32 1.9.1.4;1.4 Challenges Faced by the Twenty-First Century Academic Surgeon;34 1.9.1.5;1.5 The Role of the Academic Surgeon in Teaching;36 1.9.1.6;1.6 The Future of Surgical Research;36 1.9.1.7;References;36 1.10;Chapter 2;38 1.10.1;Evidence-Based Surgery;38 1.10.1.1;2.1 Introduction;38 1.10.1.2;2.2 What Is Evidence?;39 1.10.1.3;2.3 Hierarchy of Evidence;39 1.10.1.4;2.4 Definition and Values;40 1.10.1.5;2.5 Benefits of Evidence-Based Surgery;40 1.10.1.6;2.6 History and the So-Called "Discord" Between Surgery and Evidence-Based Practice;41 1.10.1.7;2.7 Principles of Identifying the Evidence;42 1.10.1.8;2.8 Sources of Evidence;43 1.10.1.9;2.9 Managing the Increasing Volume of Evidence;44 1.10.1.10;2.10 Practising and Delivering the Evidence;44 1.10.1.11;2.11 Surgical Modelling and Treatment Networks;45 1.10.1.11.1;2.11.1 Surgical Thinking and Evidence Synthesis;46 1.10.1.11.2;2.11.2 Bayesian Techniques;46 1.10.1.11.3;2.11.3 Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA);47 1.10.1.12;2.12 Surgical Decision-Making and Clinical Judgement Analysis;47 1.10.1.13;2.13 Cost Effectiveness in Evidence-Based Surgery;49 1.10.1.14;2.14 Surgical Training in Evidence-Based Techniques;51 1.10.1.15;2.15 Ethics;51 1.10.1.16;2.16 Conclusion;52 1.10.1.17;References;54 1.11;Chapter 3;56 1.11.1;The Role of the Academic Surgeon in the Evaluation of Healthcare Assessment;56 1.11.1.1;3.1 Introduction;56 1.11.1.2;3.2 Clinical Practice;57 1.11.1.3;3.3 Training Programme;57 1.11.1.4;3.4 Advance of Subject and Historical Perspective;57 1.11.1.5;3.5 Health Technology;59 1.11.1.6;3.5.1 Clinical Trial Expertise;59 1.11.1.7;3.5.2 Statistical Knowledge;60 1.11.1.8;3.5.3 Health Economics;60 1.11.1.9;3.5.4 Cost Effectiveness Modelling;60 1.11.1.10;3.5.5 Health-Related Quality of Life and Patient Preference;61 1.11.1.11;References;61 1.12;Chapter 4;62 1.12.1;Study Design, Statistical Inference and Literature Search in Surgical Research;62 1.12.1.1;4.1 The Basics of Study Design;62 1.12.1.1.1;4.1.1 Ecological or Aggregate Studies;62 1.12.1.1.2;4.1.2 Cross-Sectional Surveys;63 1.12.1.1.3;4.1.3 Case-Control Studies;64 1.12.1.1.4;4.1.4 Cohort or Longitudinal Studies;64 1.12.1.1.5;4.1.5 Randomised Controlled Trials;65 1.12.1.1.6;4.1.6 Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses;67 1.12.1.2;4.2 The Basics of Statistical Analysis;68 1.12.1.2.1;4.2.1 The Study Population;68 1.12.1.2.2;4.2.2 Hypothesis Testing;68 1.12.1.2.3;4.2.3 Type 1 and Type 2 Errors;68 1.12.1.2.4;4.2.4 Statistical Power;69 1.12.1.2.5;4.2.5 Interpreting "Statistically Signifi cant" Results;69 1.12.1.2.6;4.2.6 Confi dence Intervals;69 1.12.1.2.7;4.2.7 Interpreting "Negative" Results;69 1.12.1.2.8;4.2.8 Correlation and Regression;69 1.12.1.3;4.3 Causal Inference;70 1.12.1.3.1;4.3.1 What Is a Cause?;70 1.12.1.3.2;4.3.2 The Multi-Factorial Model of Causation;70 1.12.1.3.3;4.3.3 Evaluating Causality in the Multi-Factorial Model;71 1.12.1.3.4;4.3.4 Bradford Hill's Criteria for Causality;72 1.12.1.4;4.4 Clinical Importance of the Results: Types of Health Outcomes and Measures of the Effect;73 1.12.1.4.1;4.4.1 Health Outcomes;73 1.12.1.4.2;4.4.2 Clinical Importance;73 1.12.1.5;4.5 Searching Effi ciently the Biomedical Databases;75 1.12.1.5.1;4.5.1 Structure of a Database;75 1.12.1.5.2;4.5.2 Structure of PubMed;75 1.12.1.5.2.1;4.5.2.1 Some Important Fields;77 1.12.1.5.2.2;4.5.2.2 Steps for an Effi cient Search;79 1.12.1.5.2.3;4.5.2.3 Some Last Tips;81 1.12.1.6;References;82 1.13;Chapter 5;83 1.13.1;Randomised Controlled Trials: What the Surgeon Needs to Know;83 1.13.1.1;5.1 Introduction;83 1.13.1.2;5.2 Current Concepts in Clinical Trials;84 1.13.