1;Foreword;6 2;Preface;7 3;Contents;8 4;Contributors;14 5;Chapter 1;16 5.1;Epidemiology of Pediatric Strabismus;16 5.1.1;1.1 Introduction;16 5.1.2;1.2 Forms of Pediatric Strabismus;16 5.1.2.1;1.2.1 Esodeviations;16 5.1.2.1.1;1.2.1.1 Congenital Esotropia;17 5.1.2.1.2;1.2.1.2 Accommodative Esotropia;17 5.1.2.1.3;1.2.1.3 Acquired Nonaccommodative Esotropia;17 5.1.2.1.4;1.2.1.4 Abnormal Central Nervous System Esotropia;17 5.1.2.1.5;1.2.1.5 Sensory Esotropia;17 5.1.2.2;1.2.2 Exodeviations;18 5.1.2.2.1;1.2.2.1 Intermittent Exotropia;18 5.1.2.2.2;1.2.2.2 Congenital Exotropia;18 5.1.2.2.3;1.2.2.3 Convergence Insufficiency;18 5.1.2.2.4;1.2.2.4 Abnormal Central Nervous System Exotropia;18 5.1.2.2.5;1.2.2.5 Sensory Exotropia;18 5.1.2.3;1.2.3 Hyperdeviations;18 5.1.3;1.3 Strabismus and Associated Conditions;19 5.1.4;1.4 Changing Trends in StrabismusEpidemiology;19 5.1.4.1;1.4.1 Changes in Strabismus Prevalence;19 5.1.4.2;1.4.2 Changes in Strabismus Surgery Rates;19 5.1.5;1.5 Worldwide Incidence and Prevalence of Childhood Strabismus;19 5.1.6;1.6 Incidence of Adult Strabismus;22 5.1.7;References;22 6;Chapter 2;25 6.1;Changes in Strabismus Over Time: The Roles of Vergence Tonus and Muscle Length Adaptation1;25 6.1.1;2.1 Binocular Alignment System;25 6.1.1.1;2.1.1 Long-Term Maintenance of Binocular Alignment;25 6.1.1.2;2.1.2 Vergence Adaptation;26 6.1.1.3;2.1.3 Muscle Length Adaptation;26 6.1.2;2.2 Modeling the Binocular Alignment Control System;27 6.1.2.1;2.2.1 Breakdown of the Binocular Alignment Control System;28 6.1.2.2;2.2.2 Clarifi cation of Unanswered Questions Regarding the Long-Term Binocular Alignment Control System;28 6.1.2.3;2.2.3 Changes in Strabismus as a Bilateral Phenomenon;28 6.1.2.4;2.2.4 Changes in Basic Muscle Length;29 6.1.2.5;2.2.5 Version Stimulation and Vergence Stimulation;30 6.1.2.6;2.2.6 Evidence Against the "Final Common Pathway";31 6.1.3;2.3 Changes in Strabismus;32 6.1.3.1;2.3.1 Diagnostic Occlusion: And the Hazard of Prolonged Occlusion;33 6.1.3.2;2.3.2.1 Supporting Evidence for Bilateral Feedback Control of Muscle Lengths;33 6.1.4;2.4 Applications of Bilateral Feedback Control to Clinical Practice and to Future Research;35 6.1.5;References;36 7;Chapter 3;39 7.1;A Dissociated Pathogenesis for Infantile Esotropia;39 7.1.1;3.1 Dissociated Eye Movements;39 7.1.2;3.2 Tonus and its relationship to infantile esotropia;39 7.1.3;3.3 Eaotropia and Exotropia as a Continuum;40 7.1.4;3.4 Distiguishing Esotonus from Convergence;42 7.1.5;3.5 Pathogenetic Role of Dissociated Eye Movements in Infantile Esotropia;43 7.1.6;References;44 8;Chapter 4;46 8.1;The Monofixation Syndrome: New Considerations on Pathophysiology;46 8.2;4.1 Introduction;46 8.3;4.2 Nirmal and Anomalous Binocular Vision;46 8.3.1;4.2.1 Binocular Correspondence: Anomalous, Normal, or Both?;47 8.4;4.3 MFS with Manifest Strabismus;48 8.4.1;4.3.1 Esotropia is the Most Common Form of MFS;48 8.4.2;4.3.2 Esotropia Allows for Better Binocular Vision;48 8.4.3;4.3.3 Esotropia is the Most Stable Form;49 8.5;4.4 Repairing and Producing MFS;49 8.5.1;4.4.1 Animal Models for the Study of MFS;50 8.6;4.5 Primary MFS (Sensory Signs of Infantile-Onset Image Decorrelation);51 8.6.1;4.5.1 Motor Signs of Infantile-Onset Image Decorrelation;51 8.7;References;52 9;Chapter 5;54 9.1;Visual Cortex Mechanisms of Strabismus: Development and Maldevelopment;54 9.1.1;5.1 Esotropia as the Major Type of Developmental Strabismus;54 9.1.1.1;5.1.1 Early-Onset (Infantile) Esotropia;54 9.1.1.2;5.1.2 Early Cerebral Damage as the Major Risk Factor;54 9.1.1.3;5.1.3 Cytotoxic Insults to Cerebral Fibers;55 9.1.1.4;5.1.4 Genetic Infl uences on Formation of Cerebral Connections;55 9.1.1.5;5.1.5 Development of Binocular Visuomotor Behavior in Normal Infants;55 9.1.1.6;5.1.6 Development of Sensorial Fusion and Stereopsis;56 9.1.1.7;5.1.7 Development of Fusional Vergence and an Innate Convergence Bias;57 9.1.1.8;5.1.8 Development of Motion Sensitivity and Conjugate Eye Tracking (Pursuit/OKN);57 9.1.1.9;5.1.