A lake, as a body of water, is in continuous interaction with the rocks and soils in its drainage basin, the atmosphere, and surface and groundwaters. Human industrial and agricultural activities introduce new inputs and processes into lake systems. This volume is a selection of ten contributions dealing with diverse aspects of lake systems, including such subjects as the geological controls of lake basins and their histories, mixing and circulation patterns in lakes, gaseous exchange between the water and atmosphere, and human input to lakes through atmospheric precipitation and surficial runoff. This work was written with a dual goal in mind: to serve as a textbook and to provide professionals with in-depth expositions and discussions of the more important aspects of lake systems. A Lake, as a body of water, is in continuous interaction with the rocks and soils in its drainage basin, the atmosphere, and surface and groundwaters. Human industrial and agricultural activities introduce new inputs and processes into lake systems. This volume is a selection of ten contributions dealing with diverse aspects of lake systems, including such subjects as the geological controls of lake basins and their histories, mixing and circulation patterns in lakes, gaseous exchange between the water and atmosphere, and human input to lakes through atmospheric precipitation and surficial runoff. This work was written with a dual goal in mind: to serve as a textbook and to provide professionals with in-depth expositions and discussions of the more important aspects of lake systems.

1 Global Distribution of Lakes

1 Introduction
2 Background Material and Approaches to Global Lake Census
2.1 Data Used
2.2 Approaches to Global Lake Census
3 General Laws of Lake Distribution
3.1 Lake Density
3.2 Limnic Ratio
4, Distribution of Lakes of Tectonic Origin
5 Lakes of Glacial Origin
5.1 Lake Densities
5.2 Global Deglaciated Area
5.3 Total Number of Glacial Lakes
6 Fluvial Lakes
7 Global Distribution of Crater Lakes
8 Global Distribution of Saline Lakes
8.1 Coastal Lagoons
8.2 Salinized Lakes due to Evaporation
9 Global Lake Distribution
9.1 Extrapolation Approach
9.2 Lake Type Approach
9.3 Climatic Typology Approach
9.4 Lake Distribution in Endorheic Areas
9.5 Global Dissolved Salt Distribution in Lakes
10 Major Changes in Global Lake Distribution in the Geological Past
10.1 Lake Ages
10.2 Historical Changes
10.3 Postglacial Changes
11 Discussion and Conclusions
References
2 Hydrological Processes and the Water Budget of Lakes
1 Introduction
2 Hydrological System with Regard to Lakes
2.1 Interaction of Lakes with Atmospheric Water
2.2 Interaction of Lakes with Surface Water
2.3 Interaction of Lakes with Subsurface Water
2.4 Change in Lake Volume
3 Summary
References
3 Hydrological and Thermal Response of Lakes to Climate: Description and Modeling
1 Introduction
2 Hydrological Response
3 The Hydrological Budget
4 Hydrological Models
5 Thermal Response
5.1 Energy Budget and Energy Budget Models
5.2 Models and Modeling
6 Use of Models to Link Lakes with Climate Change
7 Input Data Sets
8 Sample Applications
9 Summary
References
4 Mixing Mechanisms in Lakes
1 Transport and Mixing
2 Lakes as Physical Systems
3 Fluid Dynamics: Mathematical Description of Advection and Diffusion
3.1 Equations of Fluid Motion
3.2 Turbulence, Reynolds' Stress, and Eddy Diffusion
3.3 Vertical Momentum Equation
3.4 Nonlocal Diffusion and Transilient Mixing
4 Density and Stability of Water Column
4.1 Equation of State of Water
4.2 Potential Temperature and Local Vertical Stability
5 Energy Fluxes: Driving Forces Behind Transport and Mixing
5.1 Thermal Energy
5.2 Potential Energy
5.3 Kinetic Energy
5.4 Turbulent Kinetic Energy Balance in Stratified Water
5.5 Internal Turbulent Energy Fluxes: Turbulence Cascade
6 Mixing Processes in Lakes
6.1 Waves and Mixing
6.2 Mixing in the Surface Layer
6.3 Diapycnal Mixing
6.4 Boundary Mixing
6.5 Double Diffusion
6.6 Isopycnal Mixing
7 Mixing and Its Ecological Relevance
7.1 Time Scales of Mixing
7.2 Reactive Species and Patchiness
7.3 Mixing and Growth: The Search for an Ecological Steering Factor
References
5 Stable Isotopes of Fresh and Saline Lakes
1 Introduction
1.1 Isotope Separation During Evaporation
2 Small-Area Lakes
2.1 Seasonal and Annual Changes
2.2 Deep Freshwater Lakes
2.3 Transient Surface-Water Bodies
3 Interactive and Feedback Systems
3.1 Network of Surface-Water Bodies
3.2 Recycling of Reevaporated Moisture into the Atmosphere
3.3 Large Lakes
3.4 Large-Area Lakes with Restricted Circulation
4 Saline Lakes
4.1 Isotope Hydrology of Large Salt Lakes
4.2 Ephemeral Salt Lakes and Sabkhas
5 Isotopic Paleolimnology
6 Conclusions: From Lakes to Oceans
References
6 Exchange of Chemicals Between the Atmosphere and Lakes
1 Introduction
2 Air-Water Partitioning Equilibria
3 Diffusion Between Water and Air
4 Volatilization and Absorption: Double-Resistance Approach
5 Factors Affecting Mass-Transfer Coefficients
6 Partitioning of Chemical to Particulate Matter in Air and Water
6.1 Air
6.2 Water
7 Atmospheric Deposition Processes
7.1 Dry Deposition
7.2 Wet Deposition
8 Specimen Calculation
8.1 Step 1: Physicochemical Properties
8.2 Step 2: Mass-Transfer Coefficients
8.3 Step 3: Sorption in Air and Water
8.4 Step 4: Equilibrium Status
8.5 Step 5: Volatilization and Deposition Rates
9 Role of Air-Water Exchange in Lake Mass Balances
10 Case Studies
10.1 Mass Balance on Siskiwit Lake, Isle Royale
10.2 Mass Balance on Lake Superior
10.3 Air-Water Exchange in Green Bay, Lake Michigan
10.4 Air-Water Exchange in Lake Superior
11 Conclusions
References
7 Atmospheric Depositions: Impact of Acids on Lakes
Abstract
1 Introduction: Anthropogenic Generation of Acidity
1.1 Genesis of Acid Precipitation
2 Acidity and Alkalinity: Neutralizing Capacities
2.1 Transfer of Acidity (or Alkalinity) from Pollution Through the Atmosphere to Ecosystems
3 Acidification of Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems
3.1 Disturbance of H+ Balance from Temporal or Spatial Decoupling of the Production and Mineralization of the Biomass
3.2 In Situ H+ Ion Neutralization in Lakes
3.3 Krug and Frink Revisited
4 Brønsted Acids and Lewis Acids: Pollution by Heavy Metals, as Influenced by Acidity
4.1 Cycling of Metals
4.2 Pb in Soils
5 Impact of Acidity on Ecology in Watersheds
5.1 Soils
5.2 Lakes
5.3 Nitrogen Saturation of Forests
6 Critical Loads
6.1 Critical Load Maps
6.2 Models for Critical Load Evaluation
7 Case Studies
7.1 Chemical Weathering of Crystalline Rocks in the Catchment Area of Acidic Ticino Lakes, Switzerland
7.2 Watershed Manipulation Project at Bear Brooks, Maine
8 Summary
References
8Redox-Driven Cycling of Trace Elements in Lakes
1 Introduction
2 Major Biogeochemical Cycles and Pathways
3 Iron and Manganese
3.1 Transformations and Cycling
3.2 Iron and Manganese Compounds as Carrier Phases
4 Sediment-Water Interface
4.1 Diffusive Flux from Sediments
4.2 Evidence of Little or No Diffusive Efflux from Sediments
4.3 Transient Remobilization
4.4 Diffusive Flux into Sediments
5 Pathways Involving Redox Reactions Directly: Case Studies
5.1 Arsenic
5.2 Chromium
5.3 239,24opu
5.4 Selenium
6 Pathways Involving Redox Reactions Indirectly: Case Studies
6.1 137Cs
6.2 Stable Pb, 210Pb, and 210Po
6.3 Zinc
7 Summary and Conclusions
References
9Comparative Geochemistry of Marine Saline Lakes
1 Introduction
2 General Characteristics of Marine Saline Lakes
3 Comparative Sediment-Pore-Water Reactions
3.1 Mangrove Lake, Bermuda
3.2 Solar Lake, Sinai
4 Conclusions
References
10 Organic Matter Accumulation Records in Lake Sediments
1 Introduction
1.1 Significance of Organic Matter in Lake Sediments
1.2 Origins of Organic Matter to Lake Sediments
1.3 Alterations of Organic Matter During Deposition
1.4 Similarities and Differences Between Organic Matter in Sediments of Lakes and Oceans
1.5 Dating of Lake-Sediment Records
2 Indicators of Sources and Alterations of Total Organic Matter in Lake Sediments
2.1 Source Information Preserved in C/N Ratios of Sedimentary Organic Matter
2.2 Source Information from Carbon-Stable Isotopic Compositions
2.3 Source Information from Nitrogen-Stable Isotopic Compositions
3 Origin and Alterations of Humic Substances
4 Sources and Alterations of Lipid Biomarkers
4.1 Alteration of Lipids During Deposition
4.2 Changes in Sources vs Selective Diagenesis
4.3 Effects of Sediment Grain Size on Geolipid Compositions
4.4 Source Records of Alkanes in Lake Sediments
4.5 Preservation and Degradation of Fatty Acids in Lake Sediments
4.6 Sources and Diagenesis of Sterols in Lake Sediments
4.7 Origins and Significance of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Lake Sediments
4.8 "Free"and "Bound" Geolipid Fractions of Lake Sediments
5 Sources and Alterations of Pigments in Lake Sediments
6 Sources and Diagenesis of Lignins and Their Derivatives
7 Diagenesis of Carbohydrates and Proteins in Lake Sediments
8 Paleolimnological Organic Geochemistry
8.1 Organic-Matter Record in the Laurentian Great Lakes of North America
8.2 Organic-Matter Record in Lake Biwa, Japan
8.3 Organic-Matter Record in Greifensee, Switzerland
8.4 Organic-Matter Record in Lake Washington, Washington, USA
8.5 PAH Records of Greifensee and Lake Washington Sediments
9 Organic Geochemical Records of Ancient Lakes
10 Summary
References
Lake Index.