1;Foreword;6 1.1;References;7 2;Preface;9 3;Contents;11 4;Contributors;14 5;Symbiosis: The Art of Living;21 5.1;1.1 Introduction;21 5.2;1.2 History of Symbiosis;22 5.3;1.3 Symbiosis of Bacteria 1.3.1 Symbiotic Association of Bacteria with Leguminous Plants;24 5.4;1.3.2 Symbiotic Association of Bacteria with Nonleguminous Plants;26 5.5;1.3.3 Establishment of the Mutualistic Relationship Between Rhizobia and Legumes;26 5.6;1.4 Symbiosis of Actinomycetes;32 5.7;1.5 Symbiosis Between Blue-Green Alga and Fungus: Geosiphon pyriforme;33 5.8;1.6 Symbiosis Between Algae and Fungi: Lichens;35 5.9;1.7 Symbiosis in Bryophytes;35 5.10;1.8 Symbiosis in Pteridophytes;36 5.11;1.9 Symbiosis in Gymnosperms;36 5.12;1.9.1 Coralloid Roots of Cycas;37 5.13;1.10 Symbiosis in Angiosperms;37 5.14;1.10.1 Mycorrhizal Symbiosis;37 5.15;1.11 Conclusions;45 5.16;References;45 6;Analysis of Rhizosphere Fungal Communities Using rRNA and rDNA;49 6.1;2.1 Introduction;49 6.2;2.2 Materials 2.2.1 Equipment;50 6.3;2.2.2 Materials;51 6.4;2.2.3 Procedure;51 6.5;2.3 Results 2.3.1 Nucleic Acid Extraction and Reverse Transcription from the Andropogon gerardii Rhizosphere;54 6.6;2.3.2 Community Assessment Using Reverse-Transcribed cDNAs and Environmental rDNAs;55 6.7;2.4 Conclusions;58 6.8;References;59 7;Use of Mycorrhiza Bioassays in Ecological Studies;61 7.1;3.1 Introduction;61 7.2;3.2 Assessment of Infectivity of AM Fungi in Soil;62 7.3;3.2.1 Direct Assessment of AM Fungi;62 7.4;3.2.2 Indirect Assessment: Mycorrhiza Bioassay;64 7.5;3.3 Purpose of Bioassays for Infectivity Assessment of AM Fungi;66 7.6;3.4 Conclusions;67 7.7;References;67 8;In Vivo Model Systems for Visualisation, Quantification and Experimental Studies of Intact Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Networks;71 8.1;4.1 Introduction;71 8.2;4.2 Structure of Pre-symbiotic Mycelium of AM Fungi: Visualisation and Quantification of Anastomosis 4.2.1 Occurrence and Frequency of Anastomosis;72 8.3;4.2.2 Dynamics of Anastomosis Formation in Living Hyphae;73 8.4;4.2.3 Cytochemical Analyses of Anastomosing Hyphae;75 8.5;4.2.4 Remarks;76 8.6;4.3 Visualisation and Quantification of Intact Mycelial Networks Spreading from Mycorrhizal Roots 4.3.1 Experimental System;76 8.7;4.3.2 Quantification of the Extent and Structure of the Mycorrhizal Network;78 8.8;4.3.3 Viability of the Mycorrhizal Network;79 8.9;4.3.4 Remarks;79 8.10;4.4 Visualisation of Belowground Links Between Plants of Different Species, Genera and Families 4.4.1 Experimental System;80 8.11;4.4.2 Occurrence and Frequency of Anastomoses Within and Between Mycorrhizal Networks;80 8.12;4.4.3 Remarks;82 8.13;4.5 Conclusions;82 8.14;References;83 9;Measurement of Net Ion Fluxes Using Ion- Selective Microelectrodes at the Surface of Ectomycorrhizal Roots;85 9.1;5.1 Introduction;85 9.2;5.2 Principle of Ion Activities Measurement with Ion- Selective Microelectrodes 5.2.1 What Is an Ion- Selective Microelectrode?;86 9.3;5.2.2 Expression of the Voltage Difference Across the Cocktail;87 9.4;5.3 Principle of Flux Measurement 5.3.1 Expression of Local Diffusion Flux in a Solution;88 9.5;5.3.2 Estimation of Ion Fluxes at the Root Surface;89 9.6;5.4 Equipment and Microelectrode Fabrication 5.4.1 Experimental Set- up;90 9.7;5.4.2 Making the Microelectrodes;93 9.8;5.4.3 Internal Silanization of the Pulled Borosilicate Tube or Microelectrode;93 9.9;5.4.4 Backfilling the Pipette;94 9.10;5.4.5 Calibration;95 9.11;5.4.6 Microelectrode Selectivity;96 9.12;5.5 Setting up the Electrophysiological Measurements;96 9.13;5.5.1 Determination of the Distances from the Root Surface for the Measurement Points;97 9.14;5.5.2 Factors Affecting the Calculation of the Concentration;99 9.15;5.5.3 Using a Complex Perfusing Solution;102 9.16;5.6 A Case Study: Measurement of NO3;103 9.17;Net Fluxes;103 9.18;into Ectomycorrhizal Short Roots 5.6.1 Validation of Flux Measurements into Coniferous Plants;103 9.19;5.6.2 Variation of NO3;105 9.20;Net Fluxes into Ectomycorrhizal Short;105 9.21;Roots: Effect of N So