1;Preface;62;Contents;103;1 Thermoforming-Definitions,History,Methods and Equipment;183.1;1.1 Introduction;193.2;1.2 History;203.3;1.3 Markets;213.4;1.4 Some Definitions;283.4.1;Gage;293.4.2;Clamping of Thin-Gage Sheet;293.4.3;Clamping of Heavy-Gage Sheet;303.4.4;Heating of Thin-Gage Sheet;303.4.5;Heating Heavy-Gage Sheet;313.4.6;Shaping Thin-Gage Sheet;313.4.7;Shaping Heavy-Gage Sheet;313.4.8;Trimming the Thin-Gage Sheet;323.4.9;Trimming the Heavy-Gage Sheet;323.4.10;Depth-of-Draw;323.5;1.5 Methods of Forming;333.5.1;One-Step Forming;343.5.2;Two-Step Forming with Prestretching;363.5.3;Multi-Step Forming;393.5.4;Other Variations;423.6;1.6 Thermoforming Machinery;463.6.1;Heating Source;463.6.2;Forming Platform;483.6.3;Vacuum System;493.6.4;Pressure System;533.6.5;Process Control;533.6.6;Trimming and Cut Parts Handling;553.7;1.7 Heavy-Gage Thermoforming Machinery Specifics;553.8;1.8 Thin-Gage Thermoforming Machinery Specifics;633.9;1.9 References;694;2 Polymeric Materials;714.1;2.1 Introduction;724.2;2.2 Network Nature of Polymers;724.3;2.3 Addition and Condensation Polymerization;744.4;2.4 Aromatic and Aliphatic Polymers;754.5;2.5 Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight Distribution;754.6;2.6 Molecular Weight and Properties;784.7;2.7 Morphology and Properties;804.8;2.8 Molecular Orientation;874.9;2.9 Chain Mobility and Polymer Stiffness;874.10;2.10 Stress-Crack Resistance;894.11;2.11 Gas Permeation;894.12;2.12 Copolymerization;904.13;2.13 Blends;914.14;2.14 Adducts;914.14.1;Plasticizers;914.14.2;Other Additives;934.14.3;Fillers and Reinforcing Fibers;944.15;2.15 Laminates;954.16;2.16 Stress-Strain Behavior of Plastics;954.17;2.17 Thermal Properties;994.17.1;Heat Capacity;994.17.2;Thermal Conductivity;1014.17.3;Thermal Diffusivity;1014.17.4;Thermal Expansion Coefficient;1044.18;2.18 Infrared Spectra;1044.19;2.19 Summary;1134.20;2.20 References;1205;3 Heating the Sheet;1225.1;3.1 Introduction;1235.2;3.2 Energy Absorption by Sheet;1235.3;3.3 Heat Transfer Modes;1275.4;3.4 Incorporating Formability and Time-Dependent Heating;1325.5;3.5 Conduction;1385.6;3.6 Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient;1415.6.1;The Biot Number;1425.6.2;Effective Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient;1435.6.3;Constant Heat Flux;1445.7;3.7 Radiation Heating;1455.7.1;Black Body Radiation;1465.7.2;Gray Body-Emissivity;1515.7.3;Radiant Heater Efficiency-Constant Heat Flux Application;1555.8;3.8 Real Heaters-Efficiencies;1575.8.1;Radiative Heat Transfer Coefficient;1615.8.2;Convection and the Heat Transfer Coefficient;1625.8.3;Rod Heaters;1675.9;3.9 Long-Term Radiant Heater Efficiencies;1685.10;3.10 Edge Losses-View Factor;1695.10.1;Local Energy Input;1725.10.2;Pattern Heating;1765.10.3;Zone, Zoned or Zonal Heating;1785.10.4;Heater to Sheet Distance;1795.11;3.11 Thin-Gage Sheet-Approximate Heating Rates;1815.11.1;Constant Environmental Temperature Approximation;1815.11.2;Constant Heat Flux Approximation;1845.11.3;Thin-Gage Approximations-Comments;1845.12;3.12 Heavy-Gage Sheet-Internal Temperature Control;1855.12.1;Constant Environmental Temperature;1855.12.2;The Constant Heat Flux Case;1895.12.3;The Thickness Effect;1915.12.4;Summary;1925.13;3.13 Equilibration;1935.13.1;Convection Heating;1945.13.2;Constant Heat Flux;1965.13.3;Computed Equilibration Times;1975.13.4;The W-L-F Equation;1985.13.5;The Arrhenius Equation;1995.13.6;Relating Shift Factors to Sheet Thickness;1995.14;3.14 Infrared-Transparent Polymers;1995.15;3.15 Computer-Aided Prediction of Sheet Temperature;2055.15.1;The Radiant Boundary Condition;2095.16;3.16 Guidelines for Determining Heating Cycles;2095.16.1;The Biot Number;2105.16.2;Thin-Gage Guidelines;2105.16.3;Heavy-Gage Guidelines;2105.16.4;Intermediate-Gage Guidelines;2115.17;3.17 References;2116;4 Stretching the Sheet;2146.1;4.1 Introduction;2156.2;4.2 The Stretching Concept;2196.3;4.3 Polymer Hot Strength;2256.3.1;Standard Tensile Tes