1;Foreword to the Second Edition;52;Contents;83;1 Introduction to Thermoforming;163.1;1.1 Brief History;163.2;1.2 General Markets;183.3;1.3 Terminology;203.4;1.4 General Characteristics of Thermoformed Products;214;2 General Forming Concepts;244.1;2.1 Heating and Bending;244.2;2.2 Simple Heating and Stretching;264.3;2.3 One-Step Forming;264.3.1;2.3.1 Drape Forming;264.3.2;2.3.2 Vacuum Forming;274.3.3;2.3.3 Free Forming;274.3.4;2.3.4 Non-Uniform Heating;284.3.5;2.3.5 Matched Mold Forming;284.4;2.4 Other One-Step Forming Processes;294.4.1;2.4.1 Autoclave Forming;294.4.2;2.4.2 Diaphragm Forming;294.5;2.5 Two-Step Forming;304.5.1;2.5.1 Pneumatic Preforming;304.5.2;2.5.2 Plug Assisted or Mechanical Preforming;324.5.3;2.5.3 Pressure Forming;344.5.4;2.5.4 Coining;344.6;2.6 Three-Step Forming;344.7;2.7 Twin-Sheet Forming;354.7.1;2.7.1 Heavy-Gauge Twin-Sheet Forming;354.7.2;2.7.2 Light-Gauge Twin-Sheet Forming;374.8;2.8 Contact Forming;394.9;2.9 Thermoforming as a Portion of the Overall Manufacturing Process;405;3 Part Design;425.1;3.1 Part Design Philosophy;425.1.1;3.1.1 Design Protocol;435.1.2;3.1.2 Project Protocol;445.2;3.2 Should This Part Be Thermoformed?;455.3;3.3 General Parameters Affecting Part Design;465.3.1;3.3.1 Shrinkage;465.4;3.4 General Product Design;495.4.1;3.4.1 Corner versus Chamfer;505.4.2;3.4.2 Draft Angles;505.4.3;3.4.3 Thermal Expansion;515.4.4;3.4.4 Dimensional Tolerance;525.4.5;3.4.5 Improving Dimensional Tolerance;545.5;3.5 Part Surface Quality;555.6;3.6 Trim Line Location;565.7;3.7 In-Mold Decorating and Labeling;575.8;3.8 Seal Designs on Twin-Sheet Thermoformed Parts;585.9;3.9 Some Guidelines to Successful Part Design;596;4 Machinery for the Thick-Gauge Forming Process;646.1;4.1 Shuttle Press;646.1.1;4.1.1 Two-Oven Shuttle Press;656.2;4.2 Cabinet Press;666.3;4.3 Rotary Thermoforming Press;666.4;4.4 The Elements of Heavy-Gauge Machinery;686.4.1;4.4.1 Sheet Handling;696.4.2;4.4.2 Sheet Clamping;696.4.3;4.4.3 Sheet Shuttle or Rotation;696.4.4;4.4.4 Oven(s);696.4.5;4.4.5 The Forming Press;706.4.6;4.4.6 Pneumatic Prestretching;716.4.7;4.4.7 Plug Assist Prestretching;716.4.8;4.4.8 Load/Unload Elements;726.4.9;4.4.9 Vacuum Box and Vacuum System;726.4.10;4.4.10 Pressure Box and Pressurization System;736.4.11;4.4.11 Condition Monitors and Process Control;746.4.12;4.4.12 Safety Elements;767;5 Machinery for the Light-Gauge Forming Process;787.1;5.1 Standard Roll-Fed Machine;787.2;5.2 Contact Heater Machines;807.3;5.3 Form-Fill-Seal Operation;807.4;5.4 Elements of Light-Gauge Machinery;827.4.1;5.4.1 Sheet Take-off or Unwind Station;827.4.2;5.4.2 Pin-Chain and Pin-Chain Rail;827.4.3;5.4.3 Oven(s);837.4.4;5.4.4 The Forming Press;847.4.5;5.4.5 Plug Assist Prestretching Devices;867.4.6;5.4.6 Trim Means;867.4.7;5.4.7 In-Machine Stacking Means;877.4.8;5.4.8 Vacuum Box and Vacuum System;877.4.9;5.4.9 Pressure Box and Pressurization System;887.4.10;5.4.10 Trim or Web Take-up Station;897.4.11;5.4.11 Condition Monitors and Process Control;897.4.12;5.4.12 Safety Features;918;6 Machines for Other Applications;928.1;6.1 Extrusion-Forming Lines;928.1.1;6.1.1 Advantages of Extrusion-Forming Lines for Heavy-Gauge Forming;928.1.2;6.1.2 Advantages of Extrusion-Forming Lines for Light-Gauge Forming;938.1.3;6.1.3 Disadvantages of Extrusion-Forming Lines for Heavy-Gauge Forming;938.1.4;6.1.4 Disadvantages of Extrusion-Forming Lines for Light-Gauge Forming;938.1.5;6.1.5 Important Extruder Characteristics in In-Line Forming;948.2;6.2 Matched Mold Forming Machines;948.2.1;6.2.1 Foamed Polymer Machines;958.2.2;6.2.2 Composite and Composite Laminate Machines;958.3;6.3 Wheel Machines;968.4;6.4 Custom Machines;978.5;6.5 Twin-Sheet Forming Machines;989;7 Molds and Mold Design;1009.1;7.1 Production Mold Materials;1009.1.1;7.1.1 Cast Aluminum;1009.1.2;7.1.2 Machined Aluminum;1029.1.3;7.1.3 Other Production Mold Materials;1029.2;7.2 Prototype Mold Mat

1;Foreword to the Second Edition;5
2;Contents;8
3;1 Introduction to Thermoforming;16
3.1;1.1 Brief History;16
3.2;1.2 General Markets;18
3.3;1.3 Terminology;20
3.4;1.4 General Characteristics of Thermoformed Products;21
4;2 General Forming Concepts;24
4.1;2.1 Heating and Bending;24
4.2;2.2 Simple Heating and Stretching;26
4.3;2.3 One-Step Forming;26
4.3.1;2.3.1 Drape Forming;26
4.3.2;2.3.2 Vacuum Forming;27
4.3.3;2.3.3 Free Forming;27
4.3.4;2.3.4 Non-Uniform Heating;28
4.3.5;2.3.5 Matched Mold Forming;28
4.4;2.4 Other One-Step Forming Processes;29
4.4.1;2.4.1 Autoclave Forming;29
4.4.2;2.4.2 Diaphragm Forming;29
4.5;2.5 Two-Step Forming;30
4.5.1;2.5.1 Pneumatic Preforming;30
4.5.2;2.5.2 Plug Assisted or Mechanical Preforming;32
4.5.3;2.5.3 Pressure Forming;34
4.5.4;2.5.4 Coining;34
4.6;2.6 Three-Step Forming;34
4.7;2.7 Twin-Sheet Forming;35
4.7.1;2.7.1 Heavy-Gauge Twin-Sheet Forming;35
4.7.2;2.7.2 Light-Gauge Twin-Sheet Forming;37
4.8;2.8 Contact Forming;39
4.9;2.9 Thermoforming as a Portion of the Overall Manufacturing Process;40
5;3 Part Design;42
5.1;3.1 Part Design Philosophy;42
5.1.1;3.1.1 Design Protocol;43
5.1.2;3.1.2 Project Protocol;44
5.2;3.2 Should This Part Be Thermoformed?;45
5.3;3.3 General Parameters Affecting Part Design;46
5.3.1;3.3.1 Shrinkage;46
5.4;3.4 General Product Design;49
5.4.1;3.4.1 Corner versus Chamfer;50
5.4.2;3.4.2 Draft Angles;50
5.4.3;3.4.3 Thermal Expansion;51
5.4.4;3.4.4 Dimensional Tolerance;52
5.4.5;3.4.5 Improving Dimensional Tolerance;54
5.5;3.5 Part Surface Quality;55
5.6;3.6 Trim Line Location;56
5.7;3.7 In-Mold Decorating and Labeling;57
5.8;3.8 Seal Designs on Twin-Sheet Thermoformed Parts;58
5.9;3.9 Some Guidelines to Successful Part Design;59
6;4 Machinery for the Thick-Gauge Forming Process;64
6.1;4.1 Shuttle Press;64
6.1.1;4.1.1 Two-Oven Shuttle Press;65
6.2;4.2 Cabinet Press;66
6.3;4.3 Rotary Thermoforming Press;66
6.4;4.4 The Elements of Heavy-Gauge Machinery;68
6.4.1;4.4.1 Sheet Handling;69
6.4.2;4.4.2 Sheet Clamping;69
6.4.3;4.4.3 Sheet Shuttle or Rotation;69
6.4.4;4.4.4 Oven(s);69
6.4.5;4.4.5 The Forming Press;70
6.4.6;4.4.6 Pneumatic Prestretching;71
6.4.7;4.4.7 Plug Assist Prestretching;71
6.4.8;4.4.8 Load/Unload Elements;72
6.4.9;4.4.9 Vacuum Box and Vacuum System;72
6.4.10;4.4.10 Pressure Box and Pressurization System;73
6.4.11;4.4.11 Condition Monitors and Process Control;74
6.4.12;4.4.12 Safety Elements;76
7;5 Machinery for the Light-Gauge Forming Process;78
7.1;5.1 Standard Roll-Fed Machine;78
7.2;5.2 Contact Heater Machines;80
7.3;5.3 Form-Fill-Seal Operation;80
7.4;5.4 Elements of Light-Gauge Machinery;82
7.4.1;5.4.1 Sheet Take-off or Unwind Station;82
7.4.2;5.4.2 Pin-Chain and Pin-Chain Rail;82
7.4.3;5.4.3 Oven(s);83
7.4.4;5.4.4 The Forming Press;84
7.4.5;5.4.5 Plug Assist Prestretching Devices;86
7.4.6;5.4.6 Trim Means;86
7.4.7;5.4.7 In-Machine Stacking Means;87
7.4.8;5.4.8 Vacuum Box and Vacuum System;87
7.4.9;5.4.9 Pressure Box and Pressurization System;88
7.4.10;5.4.10 Trim or Web Take-up Station;89
7.4.11;5.4.11 Condition Monitors and Process Control;89
7.4.12;5.4.12 Safety Features;91
8;6 Machines for Other Applications;92
8.1;6.1 Extrusion-Forming Lines;92
8.1.1;6.1.1 Advantages of Extrusion-Forming Lines for Heavy-Gauge Forming;92
8.1.2;6.1.2 Advantages of Extrusion-Forming Lines for Light-Gauge Forming;93
8.1.3;6.1.3 Disadvantages of Extrusion-Forming Lines for Heavy-Gauge Forming;93
8.1.4;6.1.4 Disadvantages of Extrusion-Forming Lines for Light-Gauge Forming;93
8.1.5;6.1.5 Important Extruder Characteristics in In-Line Forming;94
8.2;6.2 Matched Mold Forming Machines;94
8.2.1;6.2.1 Foamed Polymer Machines;95
8.2.2;6.2.2 Composite and Composite Laminate Machines;95
8.3;6.3 Wheel Machines;96
8.4;6.4 Custom Machines;97
8.5;6.5 Twin-Sheet Forming Machines;98
9;7 Molds and Mold Design;100
9.1;7.1 Production Mold Materials;100
9.1.1;7.1.1 Cast Aluminum;100
9.1.2;7.1